Toxicity Profiles of Metal Nanoparticles: Insights from In Vitro and In Vivo Studies

Abstract

Metal nanoparticles (MNPs) have emerged as transformative tools in various fields, including medicine, electronics, and environmental sciences, owing to their unique physicochemical properties. However, their small size and high reactivity raise concerns about potential toxicological impacts. This review explores the toxicity profiles of widely studied MNPs such as silver, gold, titanium dioxide, and zinc oxide based on in vitro and in vivo studies. The factors influencing toxicity include particle size, surface characteristics, dose, and exposure duration. Mechanisms such as oxidative stress, genotoxicity, and organ accumulation are highlighted. Addressing these risks requires standardized testing protocols, comprehensive long-term studies, and innovative mitigation strategies to ensure safe and sustainable applications of MNPs.